Plasticity and Selection Explain Variation in Tadpole Phenotype between Ponds with Different Predator Composition

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Abstract

Experiments demonstrate the existence of phenotypic plasticity in many organisms, and suggest that it can affect interactions among species. But rarely do we know whether naturally occurring phenotypic variation results primarily from plasticity, as assumed by the experiments, or also from processes such as local adaptation and viability selection. The data on predator-induced plasticity in amphibians are virtually all from artificial pond or laboratory experiments, so we sampled tadpoles of Hyla versicolor in two ponds with different numbers of predators, in southern Michigan, USA. Cornfield Pond had few predators, while Tinkle's Marsh (300 m away) had many predatory insects (11.4/m 2 ) and Ambystoma salamanders (1.0/m 2 ). Tadpoles from Tinkle's Marsh had shorter and shallower bodies than those from Cornfield Pond, and relatively long, deep, and brightly colored tails. We then asked whether the phenotypic difference could be predicted from experimental studies of plastic responses to the presence or absence of caged Anax dragonflies in cattle tanks, and of selection imposed by feeding Anax and in predator-free ponds. Plasticity accurately predicted observed population differences in traits such as tail color, tail depth, and body length. However, for some other traits, such as tail length and body depth, naturally occurring phenotypic variation was more likely produced by selection for divergent traits in the two ponds. We also collected tadpoles from both ponds and subjected them to free-ranging Anax in a short-term predation trial. Tadpoles from Tinkle's Marsh, where predators were common, survived 16% better, suggesting that naturally occurring phenotypic variation is associated with changing vulnerability to predation, as has been found for experimentally reared tadpoles. Our results show how experimental studies of plasticity and selection can be combined to predict phenotypic variation in nature, and suggest that such variation can modify species interactions.

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